Reading the Vesuvius Scrolls

Imagine, within your grasp, a scroll from the first-century AD, holding the secrets of the long-gone past. Unfortunately, this rolled-scroll was buried by Mount Vesuvius, the same volcano that obliterated Pompeii, and is nothing but a charred and burnt relic that could crumble if the wind blew the wrong way. The scroll is not the only one of its kind, either. It belongs to a remarkable library in Herculaneum, containing around 1,800 parchments. Like Pompeii, Herculaneum was buried by ash when Vesuvius erupted in 79AD. It wasn't until the 18th century that Herculaneum's library - the last standing ancient library, for that matter - was excavated. When that happened, various intact contents were brought to light for the first time in many many centuries. Of course, in the two hundred years since then, scientists have been trying to read the scrolls without damaging them. For example, several strategies involved delicately unrolling the scrolls and writing down what they could before the ink disappeared in the modern air, no longer preserved. Some of these fragments were even read successfully, mostly during more recent years, thanks to the help of infra-red camera technology. Most of the scrolls that have been unwound so far have been philosophical prose and poetry that had been lost to modern schools until now. But the method of unwinding the scrolls, even carefully, was damaging much of the ancient works, and it was decided that an alternative technique needed to be put in place. Since then, scientists have also tried looking inside the scrolls using CT scans. This technique was able to reveal the shape and layers of papyri, but, sadly, couldn't decipher the words inked upon them. Some other people tried to look inside the scrolls with CT scans, revealing the shape of the ancient, coiled layers, but they weren't about to decipher the contents. But the amazing thing about people is their curiosity, their thirst for knowledge - especially when it comes to history. And it is thanks to this inquisitiveness (and 3D X-ray imaging technology), that physicists were able to distinguish ink from paper, even deep inside the scroll. Using this kind of technology means that the scrolls don't have to be unfurled and, therefore, won't be damaged. The team is being led by physicist Dr Vito Mocella from Naples' CNR-IMM (Council for National Research for Microelectronics and Microsystems) and their work is published in Nature Communications . Dr Mocella came up with the idea of X-ray phase-content tomography being adapted for use on ancient scrolls when he was on a visit to France. "I was in Grenoble for a collaboration, and they explained to me some new developments using phase-contrast for science, for paleontology," he said. "They sounded like exotic applications, and I said, 'I have another idea.'" A regular X-ray machine works by measuring how much X-ray light shines through different parts of tissue in the body. But when X-rays pass through an object, they become slightly slowed or distorted, and it is this that the new X-ray takes advantage of. The distortion can occur because of the tiniest variations, and measuring the differences - "phase contrast" - can actually produce a very detailed, 3D picture of inside the scroll. The tiny bumps on the papyrus from a long-ago pen and ink were the key to revealing what the scrolls had to say. The team found that the carbon-based ink wasn't very chemically different to the carbonised paper it was used on. But because the papyrus didn't actually absorb the ink, the liquid sort of sat on the surface. When it came to deciphering what they found, a lot of time and guesswork had to be used. You have to remember, the scroll wasn't just rolled but also slightly crushed from surviving being blasted by 300°C (572°F) heat and the chaos ensuing Vesuvius' eruption. On top of this, the fibres of the papyri were in grid form, disguising many of the straighter strokes of the letters. This meant that curved letters were easier to pick out. "I don't think the technique is perfect," Dr Mocella pointed out, adding that he and his team are already working on ways to improve upon the method. The project is one that Dr Mocella and his team are very passionate for - it is not about the ability to read the individual scrolls, but what these parchments symbolise. "Regardless of the individual text, the library is a unique cultural treasure," Dr Mocella explained. "It is the only ancient library to survive almost entire, together with its books. "It is the library itself that confers the status of exceptionality."

India’s Tigers are Making a Comeback!

Our whole lives it seems we are told about the ever-decreasing numbers of endangered animals and how they will probably become extinct in our lifetime. But (as always) we have good news! Official figures from last week indicate that the population of tigers in India has boosted by almost a third in just three years. India is home to around 70% of all the wild tigers in the world, most of which live in one of the country's 50 wildlife reserves that have been created for the tigers since the 1970s. Environment Minister Prakash Javadekar said that the latest figures were proof that the current strategies to give the tiger population a boost were working. Mr Javadekar is putting the success down to creating wildlife reserves for the tigers, which are monitored by specialist government staff. "This is why we want to create more tiger reserves," he explained. "This [tiger boost] is proof of India's biodiversity and how we care for mitigating climate change. This is India's step in the right direction, which the world will applaud." The rise in numbers over the past three years - from 1,706 (2011) to 2,226 (2014) - with further encourage campaigners to carry on fighting to protect the endangered species. The problems lie in the fact that, even though there are reserves for the tigers, their habitat is still threatened by uncontrolled development and poaching. According to Belinda Wright from the WPSI (Wildlife Protection Society of India), a better focus on tiger conservation over the last few years could be responsible for this little surge in numbers. This focus has led to, among other things, better patrolling and monitoring of the reserves. "There still remains the habitat destruction and encroachment," she pointed out. "Hopefully, the new figures will increase the pressure on the government to tread carefully when it is a matter of development in tiger habitats." Outside of reserves, tiger habitats are dwindling terribly, to almost the point of non-existence. The creatures thrive in areas with evergreen, thorn, or deciduous forest, grass jungles or mangrove swamps. But even inside the zone designated for the big cats, food and space can become sparse tourism and other industries are left unchecked. Lots of tigers end up foraging in human-populated areas, which can lead to fatalities on both sides. "We must ensure that animal-human conflict does not happen," concludes Mr Javadekar. "We have proactively decided that we will create more grasslands and water storage in forest areas so that the animals can live well."

New Heart Attack Test for Women

According to experts, if both a man and women visited the emergency room complaining of chest pains, the male would be twice as likely to be diagnosed with a heart attack than the female. But this isn't because twice as many men suffer from heart attacks than women. All of the tell-tale signs of cardiac arrest that you hear about - they don't necessarily apply to everyone. So someone could be admitted with just chest pains and they could still be having a heart attack without any of the other well-known symptoms. Obviously a medical emergency, early diagnosis and treatment of a heart attack could mean the difference between life and death. But the team has found out that heart attacks may be harder to detect in women. This could be down to women having seemingly milder attacks that don't get picked up by the usual tests or ECGs, or simply that the symptoms differ. At the moment, the NHS uses standard troponin tests to check for a heart attack. Troponin is a protein that signals that they might have been damage to the heart muscle, and thus the patient has experience a heart attack. Doctors rely on troponin blood tests to help them judge whether or not a patient with chest pain is going through a heart attack. However, if the results of these tests come back as normal, then a heart-attack diagnosis could be passed over. Scottish researchers from the Royal Infirmary of Edinburgh wanted to see if a more sensitive troponin test would make any difference against these worrying results. They set up clinical trials at the hospital, examining more than 1120 people - both men and women - who had been admitted with chest pains, and published their findings in the BMJ . The study, funded by the British Heart Foundation, used to standard test to check out the troponin levels of all of the patients. The team found that 117 of the male patients (19%) were having a heart attack, compared to only 55 of the female patients (11%). Researchers then used the new, high-sensitivity troponin test to see if and how those number varied. Using the new test, the team found that the number of women diagnosed with a heart attack actually doubled, making it 111 women having heart attacks - 22%, not 11%. In addition, the more sensitive test managed to spot a couple of extra cases in the male patients. While this doesn't sound like a lot, it does mean that these people could be treated for the heart attack they were having, without having their condition otherwise overlooked. Analysing the results, the team realised that the additional cases picked up by the new test differed slightly than those using the standard test. These patients were actually at a higher risk of having another heart attack within a year - or even dying. Dr Anoop Shah is one of the study authors. He explained that the findings suggest the troponin-testing threshold is too high when testing women, and that these levels should be adjusted depending on the gender of the patient. "For some reason, women are less likely to have obvious symptoms," Dr Shah said. He went on to explain that if half of the women having heart attacks are sent home with a negative diagnosis, they could end up having another cardiac event soon after simply because their condition isn't treated. Two versions of the test - troponin I and troponin T - have already been approved by the relevant regulatory bodies, though not all hospitals in the UK have moved on to the high-sensitivity test just yet. The team said that more research, of which the trials have already begun, is required to verify that lowering the troponin threshold for women will actually save lives. This is what the British Heart Foundation believes, according to its Medical Director, Professor Peter Weissberg. "Using a high-sensitivity troponin test could save many more women's lives by identifying them earlier to take steps to prevent them dying or having another, bigger heart attack," he said. If you experience unusual chest pains, call an ambulance or get yourself to your local A&E. And it might be worth your while to ask whoever treats you if they have a high-sensitivity troponin test - it might just save your life. For more information about heart attacks and their symptoms, please visit the NHS website .